![]() ![]() Instead, I argue, much validation takes place in formal education, but it is mostly covert and goes unnoticed. Based on this classification, I problematise the widespread view that there is little validation in formal education. Building on these literatures, the article differentiates between four types of validation: (a) covert and implicit, (b) covert but embedded, (c) overt and functional and (d) overt and institutional. This article reframes the debate on the validation of non-formal and informal learning by connecting it to the sociology of education and curriculum studies literatures.
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